747-400

Boeing 747-400 of Singapore Airlines, the type's first international operator

The original variant of the redesigned 747, the 747-400 debuted an increased wingspan, winglets, revised engines, and a glass cockpit which removed the need for a flight engineer. The type also featured the stretched upper deck (SUD) introduced with the 747-300. The passenger model formed the bulk of 747-400s sold, and 442 were built.

In 1989, a Qantas 747-400 flew non-stop from London to Sydney, a distance of 9,720 nmi (11,190 mi, 18,001 km), in 20 hours and 9 minutes to set a commercial aircraft world distance record.^[25] This was a delivery flight with no commercial passengers or freight on board. During testing, the first 747-400 built also set a world record for the heaviest airliner takeoff on June 27, 1988, on a flight to simulate heavy-weight stalls.^[17] The flight had a takeoff weight of 892,450 pounds (404,810 kg), and in order to satisfy Fédération Aéronautique Internationale regulations, the aircraft climbed to a height of 6,562 feet (2,000 m).^[17]

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Design

The planform of a Japan Airlines Boeing 747-400

A Garuda Indonesia Boeing 747-400 atNgurah Rai International Airport in 2007

The 747-400's airframe features extended and lighter wings than previous 747s, capped by winglets. The winglets result in a 3 percent increase in long-range cruise, improved takeoff performance, and higher cruise altitudes.^[14] The extended wingspan also gains an additional leading edge flap section.^[14] When unfurnished, the basic 747-400 fuselage is lighter than preceding models, but when fitted out it is heavier and stronger than previous models.^[23] The landing gear uses the same configuration as previous 747s, but with carbon brakes replacing the previous steel ones, and overall weight savings of 1,800 pounds (820 kg).^[23]

The 747-400's glass cockpit features CRT displays which show flight instrumentation along with engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS) diagnostics.^[13] The flight engineer station on previous 747s is no longer installed, and the new displays and simplified layout results in a two-thirds reduction of switches, lights, and gauges versus the Classic 747.^[13] Other new systems include an advanced Honeywell flight management computer (FMC) which assists pilots in calculating optimal altitudes and routes along with a Rockwell-Collins central maintenance computer (CMC) which automates troubleshooting tasks.^[13]

The redesigned 747-400 interior features new cabin sidewalls, heat-resistant phenolic glass, carbon composite paneling, and larger storage bins.^[15] An enhanced in-flight entertainment framework, called the Advanced Cabin Entertainment/Service System (ACESS), debuted on 747-400, which integrates 18-channel audio capability, four passenger intercom announcement zones, inter-cabin telephones, and passenger lighting into a central system.^[24]An eight-bunk overhead crew rest is installed above the aft cabin, while a second crew rest area is located on the upper deck behind the cockpit for flight crew use.^[24]

The last few 747-400s delivered features the Boeing Signature Interior, derived from the Boeing 777.^{[citation needed]}

Cathay Pacific 747-400 nose first class section

United Airlines 747-400 main deckeconomy class cabin

British Airways 747-400 upper deck business class

[edit]Variants

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Further developments

Qantas placed the 747-400ER into service in November 2002

The extended range freighter (ERF) entered service in October 2002. The next month, the extended range (ER) passenger version entered service withQantas, the only airline ever to order the passenger version of the 747-400ER. Qantas uses the aircraft on its Melbourne–Los Angeles and Sydney–Dallas flights, which are too long to operate using a standard 747-400.^{[citation needed]} The 747-400ER featured the Boeing Signature Interior, which was later made available on the 747-400 (either as interior refitting on existing 747-400s or factory installation on new frames). One example, China Airlines's four newest Boeing 747-400s (tail number B-1821x), also the last four passenger 747-400s built, were newly built with Boeing Signature Interior. One of these (B-18210) has a hybrid livery, with China Airlines' tail and Boeing's fuselage liveries.

In the 2000s, as part of an effort to promote sustainable and alternative fuel development, as well as lower emissions, several 747-400 operators studied the use of oil extracted from the jatropha plant. Air New Zealand carried out the first commercial flight using jatropha oil for fuel; the airline's 747-400 had one engine burning a mix of 50% jatropha oil and 50% jet fuel for two hours during the flight while engineers collected data. Continental Airlines tested jatropha oil in one of its airliners on January 7, 2009. Jatropha is easy to grow, needs little fertilizer or water, and produces an oil-rich plant.^[21]

Production of the 747-400 passenger version officially ceased on March 15, 2007.^[1] The last four −400s on order were cancelled by Philippine Airlines (which switched to the 777-300ER). The last to order the −400 was China Airlines in November 2002, with the last passenger 747-400 constructed in 2005 and delivered in April of that year.^[1] It was the 1358th 747 (MSN33737/B-18215).^[22]

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Service entry and operations

Northwest Airlines placed the 747-400 into service in February 1989.

The first 747-400 was delivered to launch customer Northwest Airlines on January 26, 1989, with service entry on February 9 with a flight from Minneapolis to Phoenix.^[18] This was the twentieth anniversary of the 747-100's first flight. On May 31, 1989, Singapore Airlines operated the first international service using a 747-400, on a flight from Singapore to London.^[19]

In May 1989, one week before the initial delivery to the 747-400's first European customer, KLM, the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) shocked Boeing by refusing to grant regulatory certification for the aircraft, citing the upper deck cabin floor's resistance to collapse in the event of a sudden decompression.^[15] While the manufacturer asserted that the 747-400's cabin floor was no different than the already-certified and in-service 747-300, the JAA maintained that the newer model would have a service life into 2020 and beyond and was thus subject to a newer, more stringent standard which had been updated to reflect the risk of explosive devices.^[20] In the days leading up to the first delivery to KLM, negotiations between Boeing, the FAA, and the JAA resulted in a compromise: a temporary operating certificate would be issued for the 747-400, provided that the manufacturer develop a structural retrofit for the aircraft within two years.^[20] The last-minute deal allowed KLM and Lufthansa to take delivery of their 747-400s without further delays.^[20]

After the first 747-400 deliveries, Boeing began production on additional variants of the aircraft. The first 747-400 Combi, able to carry both passengers and freight, was rolled out in June 1989.^[20]The 747-400 Domestic, a short-range variant of the aircraft designed for Japanese intra-island services, first flew on March 18, 1991 and entered service with Japan Airlines on October 22, 1991. A cargo variant, the 747-400F, was first delivered in May 1993 to Cargolux.^[20] By the end of the 1990s, Boeing was producing four versions of the 747-400.

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Production and testing

Final assembly of the first 747-400 began at Boeing's Everett factory, the longtime site of 747 production, in September 1987.^[15] More than fifty percent of the aircraft was produced by subcontractors, with major structures, engine nacelles, and sub-assemblies supplied by Northrop, and upper deck fuselage frames from Daewoo.^[16] All components were integrated during the final assembly process at the Everett factory. The first aircraft, equipped with PW4056 engines, was completed over the winter months of late 1987.^[15] On January 26, 1988, the first 747-400 rolled out at the Everett factory, while the first 737-400 rolled out at Boeing's Renton factory on the same day, marking the first double jetliner rollout in the manufacturer's history.^[15] By the time of the rollout, the 747-400 program had amassed more than 100 orders.^[15]

An aerial view of Boeing Field, one of the sites used for 747-400 flight testing.

The 747-400 flew for the first time on April 29, 1988, under the command of test pilot James Loesch and co-pilot Kenneth Higgins.^[17] The first flight was six weeks behind schedule, owing to subcontractor delays in supplying components, and extra troubleshooting on the aircraft's electronics systems.^[15] The maiden flight took off from Paine Field, site of the Everett factory, and landed at Boeing Field, south of Seattle, after an uneventful 2 hours and 26 minutes.^[17] The 747-400's flight test program utilized the first four aircraft built, one over the minimum number necessary to certify the aircraft's three engine options.^[17] One test aircraft each was fitted with the CF6-80C2B1F and RB21-524G/H engines, while the other two featured PW4056 engines, with the fourth aircraft serving as a backup.^[17] Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification was received on January 9, 1989 with Pratt & Whitney PW4000 engines, May 18, 1989 with General Electric CF6-80C2s and June 8, 1989 with Rolls-Royce RB211-524Gs.

As the flight test program proceeded, Boeing encountered problems in the 747-400's production process, leading it to disclose delivery delays of up to one month for the first 20 aircraft built.^[15] A primary reason for the delays was the unprecedented complexity of interior configurations offered to airlines, which ranged from lavatory and galley locations to the color shades of cabin warning labels.^[15] Coupled with new, relatively inexperienced workers, a lack of veteran technicians, interior configurations needing costly re-work, and teething problems with electronics integration on the advanced flight deck, 747-400 production fell behind schedule.^[15] However, the company managed to resolve early production issues by mid-1989, with all three 747-400 engine variants delivered within four months of each other, and overall delays not exceeding several weeks.^[15]

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Design effort

Seven early customers, namely British Airways, Cathay Pacific, KLM, Lufthansa, Northwest, Qantas, and Singapore Airlines, formed a consultative group to advise Boeing on the 747-400's design process.^[13] While the aircraft was planned as a new-technology upgrade, Boeing originally proposed minimal design changes in order to reduce development cost and retain commonalitywith existing models.^[13] However, the airline consultative group sought more advanced changes, most notably a two-crew glass cockpit. As a result of airline input, the 747-400's new digital cockpit design featured a hybrid of the cathode-ray tube (CRT) display technologies first employed on the 757 and 767, along with carry-over 747 systems such as its autopilot.^[13]

The modernized glass cockpit of the Boeing 747-400

The 747-400's wingspan was stretched by 17 feet (5.2 metres) over the Classic 747 through wingtip extensions. For reduced aerodynamic drag, the wings were fitted with 6 feet (1.8 metres)-tall winglets.^[14] Despite the added length, the wings were 6,000 pounds (2,700 kg) lighter as a result of new aluminum alloys.^[14] The horizontal tail was also redesigned to fit a 3,300 US gallons (12,000 l) fuel tank, resulting in a 350 nautical miles (650 km) range increase, and the rudder travel was increased to 30 degrees.^[14] The landing gear was redesigned with larger wheels and carbon brakes.^[14]Internal changes further included a restyled cabin with new materials and updated fittings.^[15]

New engines offered on the 747-400 included the Pratt & Whitney PW4056, the General Electric CF6-80C2B1F, and the Rolls-Royce RB211-524G/H.^[14] The engines offered lower fuel consumption and greater thrust, along with a full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) which adjusted engine performance for improved efficiency compared with the Classic 747s.^[14] A new auxiliary power unit (APU) manufactured by Pratt & Whitney Canada was also selected to provide on-ground power for the 747-400, with a 40 percent reduction in fuel consumption compared to previous APU designs.^[14]

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Background

Following its introduction in 1970, the Boeing 747 became a major success with airlines and the flying public.^[7] As the world's first wide-body jetliner, the 747 had revolutionized air travel, and cemented its manufacturer's dominance in the passenger aircraft market.^[8] In 1980, Boeing announced the 747-300, its latest 747 variant featuring greater passenger capacity. This was made possible by making a stretched upper deck (SUD), previously an option on the 747-200, a standard feature.^[9] The SUD was almost twice as long as the original 747 upper deck. However, besides increased capacity, the 747-300 did not offer any increase in range, nor did it include improvements in flight deck technology or construction materials.^[10] At the same time, 747s were becoming more costly to operate due to a number of factors, notably conventional flight control systems, three-person flight crews, and fuel costs.^[7]

In 1982, Boeing introduced a two-crew glass cockpit, new engines, and advanced materials on its 757 and 767 twinjets.^[10] Similar technologies were also included in the design plans for newly-announced rival wide-body aircraft, namely the Airbus A340 and McDonnell Douglas MD-11.^[10] At the same time, combined sales of the 747-100, −200, and −300 models (collectively referred to as the 747 "Classics") neared 700, but new orders slowed precipitously.^[11] The introduction of the 747-300 did little to stem the decline, and itself faced potential competition from more modern designs. As a result, Boeing began considering a more significant upgrade for its largest passenger jet.^[10]

By early 1984, company officials had identified five development objectives for the latest 747 upgrade: new technologies, an enhanced interior, a 1,000 nautical miles (1,900 km) range increase, more efficient engines, and a 10 percent reduction in operating cost.^[10] In September 1984, Boeing announced development of the newest 747 derivative, the "Advanced Series 300", at theFarnborough Airshow.^[10] On October 22, 1985, the type was officially launched when Northwest Airlines became the first 747-400 customer, with an order for 10 aircraft.^[12] Cathay Pacific, KLM,Lufthansa, Singapore Airlines, and British Airways also announced orders several months later, followed by United Airlines, Air France, and Japan Airlines.^[12]

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Boeing 747-400

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from 747-400)

Boeing 747-400
Boeing 747-400 of British Airways, the type's largest operator
Role	Wide-body jet airliner
National origin	United States
Manufacturer	Boeing Commercial Airplanes
First flight	April 29, 1988
Introduction	February 9, 1989 with Northwest Airlines
Status	In service
Primary users	British Airways Lufthansa China Airlines United Airlines
Produced	Passenger versions: 1988–2007[1] Freighter versions: 1993–2009[2]
Number built	694[3]
Unit cost	747-400/-400ER: US$234–266.5 million[4] 747-400F/-400ERF: US$238–268 million[4]
Developed from	Boeing 747-300
Variants	Boeing YAL-1 Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter
Developed into	Boeing 747-8

The Boeing 747-400 is a major development and the best-selling model of the Boeing 747 family of jet airliners. While retaining the four-engine wide-body layout of its predecessors, the 747-400 embodies numerous technological and structural changes to produce a more efficient airframe. Its most distinguishing features versus preceding 747 models are 6-foot (1.8 m) winglets mounted on 6-foot (1.8 m) wing tip extensions, which are found on all 747-400s except for Japanese domestic market versions.

The 747-400 is equipped with a two-crew glass cockpit, which dispenses with the need for a flight engineer, along with more fuel-efficient engines, a horizontal stabilizer fuel tank, and revised fuselage/wing fairings. The aircraft also features an all-new interior with upgraded in-flight entertainment architecture. As on the 747-300, passenger variants include a stretched upper deck as standard. The model has a maximum capacity of 660 passengers with the 747-400D variant,^[5] and can fly non-stop for up to 7,670 nautical miles (14,200 km) with maximum payload, depending on model.

Northwest Airlines first placed the 747-400 in commercial service in February 9, 1989. The 747-400 was produced in passenger (−400), freighter (−400F), combi (−400C), domestic (−400D), extended range passenger (−400ER) and extended range freighter (−400ERF) versions. The 747-400 is the second-most recent version of the Boeing 747 aircraft family, to be superseded by the more economical and advanced Boeing 747-8. The last −400 model was delivered in December 2009.^[6]

Incidents and accidents

Laboratory replication of ice crystals clogging the fuel-oil heat exchanger on a Rolls-Royce Trent 800engine, from the NTSB report on the BA38 and DL18 incidents^[181]

As of August 2012, the 777 has been in eight aviation occurrences,^[182] including two hull-loss accidents,^[183] and two hijackings, with no fatalities among the passengers or crew.^[184] The only fatality involving the twinjet occurred in a refueling fire at Denver International Airport on September 5, 2001, during which a ground worker sustained fatal burns.^[185] The aircraft, operated by British Airways, suffered fire damage to the lower wing panels and engine housing; it was later repaired and put back into service.^[185][186]

The type's first hull-loss occurred on January 17, 2008, when British Airways Flight 38, a 777-200ER with Rolls-Royce Trent 895 engines flying from Beijing to London, crash-landed approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) short of Heathrow Airport's runway 27L and slid onto the runway'sthreshold. There were 47 injuries and no fatalities. The impact damaged the landing gear, wing roots, and engines, and the aircraft was written off.^[187][188] Upon investigation, the accident was blamed on ice crystals from the fuel system clogging the fuel-oil heat exchanger (FOHE).^[181]Air accident investigators called for this component on the Trent 800 series engine to be redesigned in 2009.^[189] Redesigned fuel oil heat exchangers were installed in British Airways' 777s by October 2009.^[190]

Two other minor momentary losses of thrust with Trent 895 engines occurred in February and November 2008.^[191][192] The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigators concluded that, just as on BA38, the loss of power was caused by ice in the fuel clogging the fuel-oil heat exchanger. As a result, the heat exchanger was redesigned.^[181]

The type's second hull-loss occurred on July 29, 2011, when an EgyptAir 777-200ER registered as SU-GBP suffered a cockpit fire while parked at the gate at Cairo International Airport.^[193] The plane was successfully evacuated with no injuries,^[193] and airport fire teams extinguished the fire.^[194] The aircraft sustained structural, heat, and smoke damage, and was written off.^[193][194] Investigators focused on a possible electrical fault with a supply hose in the cockpit crew oxygen system.^[193]

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